The literature on deep brain stimulation (DBS) and adaptive DBS (aDBS) raises concerns that these technologies may affect personality, mood, and behavior. We conducted semi-structured interviews with researchers (n = 23) involved in developing next-generation DBS systems, exploring their perspectives on ethics and policy topics including whether DBS/aDBS can cause such changes. The majority of researchers reported being aware of personality, mood, or behavioral (PMB) changes in recipients of DBS/aDBS. Researchers offered varying estimates of the frequency of PMB changes. A (...) smaller majority reported changes in personality specifically. Some expressed reservations about the scientific status of the term ‘personality,’ while others used it freely. Most researchers discussed negative PMB changes, but a majority said that DBS/aDBS can also result in positive changes. Several researchers viewed positive PMB changes as part of the therapeutic goal in psychiatric applications of DBS/aDBS. Finally, several discussed potential causes of PMB changes other than the device itself. (shrink)

The expansion of research on deep brain stimulation (DBS) and adaptive DBS (aDBS) raises important neuroethics and policy questions related to data sharing. However, there has been little empirical research on the perspectives of experts developing these technologies. We conducted semi-structured, open-ended interviews with aDBS researchers regarding their data sharing practices and their perspectives on ethical and policy issues related to sharing. Researchers expressed support for and a commitment to sharing, with most saying that they were either sharing their data (...) or would share in the future and that doing so was important for advancing the field. However, those who are sharing reported a variety of sharing partners, suggesting heterogeneity in sharing practices and lack of the broad sharing that would reflect principles of open science. Researchers described several concerns and barriers related to sharing, including privacy and confidentiality, the usability of shared data by others, ownership and control of data (including potential commercialization), and limited resources for sharing. They also suggested potential solutions to these challenges, including additional safeguards to address privacy issues, standardization and transparency in analysis to address issues of data usability, professional norms and heightened cooperation to address issues of ownership and control, and streamlining of data transmission to address resource limitations. Researchers also offered a range of views on the sensitivity of neural activity data (NAD) and data related to mental health in the context of sharing. These findings are an important input to deliberations by researchers, policymakers, neuroethicists, and other stakeholders as they navigate ethics and policy questions related to aDBS research. (shrink)

David Estlund and Massimo Renzo argue that, given the right background conditions, combatants are obligated to obey orders to fight in unjust wars, a thesis they put forward even as they recognize that this involves committing serious moral wrongs. Their views, then, fall between traditionalism and revisionism in the theory of just war. We argue that both Estlund and Renzo fail to adequately distinguish between binding and nonbinding serious morally wrong orders, that their views are incompatible with their assumed fact‐relative (...) understanding of morality, and that they fail to establish that combatants are obligated to obey orders to fight in unjust wars. We conclude that just as untenable as these two middle‐ground positions is the traditionalist view. (shrink)

In the last decades, proportionality has become increasingly influential in human rights adjudication. Even in the United States, a country with its own tradition of constitutional review, proporti...

The capacity of next-generation closed-loop or adaptive deep brain stimulation devices to read and write shows great potential to effectively manage movement, seizure, and psychiatric disorders, and also raises the possibility of using aDBS to electively modulate mood, cognition, and prosociality. What separates aDBS from most neurotechnologies currently used for enhancement is that aDBS remains an invasive, surgically-implanted technology with a risk-benefit ratio significantly different when applied to diseased versus non-diseased individuals. Despite a large discourse about the ethics of enhancement, (...) no empirical studies yet examine perspectives on enhancement from within the aDBS research community. We interviewed 23 aDBS researchers about their attitudes toward expanding aDBS use for enhancement. A thematic content analysis revealed that researchers share ethical concerns related to safety and security; enhancement as unnecessary, unnatural or aberrant; and fairness, equality, and distributive justice. Most researchers felt that enhancement applications for DBS will eventually be technically feasible and that attempts to develop such applications for DBS are already happening. However, researchers unanimously felt that DBS ideally should not be considered for enhancement until researchers better understand brain target localization and functioning. While many researchers acknowledged controversies highlighted by scholars and ethicists, such as potential impacts on personhood, authenticity, autonomy and privacy, their ethical concerns reflect considerations of both gravity and perceived near-term likelihood. (shrink)

O PAPEL DA CRÍTICA HERMENÊUTICA DO DIREITO: SOBRE AS RELAÇÕES ENTRE FILOSOFIA, TEORIA DO DIREITO E A ATUAÇÃO DO JUDICIÁRIO.

A gastronomia e a cozinha são compreendidas neste artigo como um espaço que está na relação entre seres humanos e alimentos, com técnicas, valores e símbolos, que exprimem relações sociais construídas ao longo da história. Entendê-las sob esta perspectiva nos leva a compreender que suas práticas se dão além dos espaços dos restaurantes e que os/as chefes de cozinha vêm se destacando como potentes agentes de transformação social, tendo a comida papel central na transformação da vida das pessoas. Este estudo (...) de caráter descritivo e exploratório tem como objetivo analisar, a partir de publicações jornalísticas, formas de participação social de chefes de cozinha como agentes que usam a comida como ferramenta social. Foram selecionadas para a coleta de dados nove matérias de jornais digitais de dois tipos editoriais de mídias jornalísticas, um relacionado a diretrizes ideológicas e comerciais e o outro sem vínculos com grupos políticos ou anunciantes. As matérias foram publicadas no período de 2016 a 2020. Evidenciamos práticas sociais inseridas em estratégias de aproximação entre produtores e consumidores através do consumo de alimentos provenientes da agricultura familiar ou de produtores locais. As práticas em alguns casos têm a comida e a cozinha como forma de fortalecer a identidade cultural dos grupos sociais. A ideia de engajamento social e político associado à participação também pode ser vista através da participação dos/das chefes em eventos. Pode ser vista, ainda, em ações que reivindicam a segurança alimentar e nutricional para todos. Por fim, práticas solidárias de preparação e distribuição de alimentos foram observadas durante o período da pandemia de COVID-19. (shrink)

Este artigo, no qual analisamos a novela de Hilda Hilst Com meus olhos de cão (1986), tem como objetivo principal apontar os aspectos paratópicos na obra selecionada. Paratopia é um conceito formulado por Dominique Maingueneau e trata, basicamente, do não-lugar criado e ocupado por algumas literaturas e seus autores. Para isso, estudaremos a linguagem literária desenvolvida pela autora na obra, como também os personagens, o espaço e o tempo da narrativa, os quais acabam por deslocá-la do lugar mais comum do (...) cânone literário.Palavras-chave: Paratopia. Hilda Hilst. Não Lugar. Paratopia. AbstractThis article, in which we analyze Hilda Hilst’s novella Com meus olhos de cão [With my eyes of Dog] (1986), has as its main objective to point out the paratopyc aspects in the selected work. ‘Paratopy’ is a concept formulated by Dominique Maingueneau and it basically deals with the non-place created and occupied by some literatures and their authors. In order to do that, we study the literary language developed by the author, as well as the characters, space and time in her narrative, which, in the end, displace it from the most common place in the literary canon.Keywords: Paratopy. Hilda Hilst. Non-place. Paratopy. (shrink)

This article is divided in three parts in order to investigate on the authorial and creative philosophical production in the Brazilian academic environment. In the first part, we show the challenge to authorial production in philosophy in Brazil, starting from the example of recent initiatives in the philosophy of religion. In the second part, by means of an analogy with music, we intend to argue that the plead for a greater promotion of authorial philosophy in Brazil does not mean to (...) devaluate the work with history of philosophy, which seems to be the predominant approach in academic philosophy in our country. The third part addresses the challenges to the formation of philosophical authorship, based on the triplet student-professor-knowledge, and acknowledging objective and subjective aspects of learning. (shrink)

BackgroundPreprint usage is growing rapidly in the life sciences; however, questions remain on the relative quality of preprints when compared to published articles. An objective dimension of quality that is readily measurable is completeness of reporting, as transparency can improve the reader’s ability to independently interpret data and reproduce findings.MethodsIn this observational study, we initially compared independent samples of articles published in bioRxiv and in PubMed-indexed journals in 2016 using a quality of reporting questionnaire. After that, we performed paired comparisons (...) between preprints from bioRxiv to their own peer-reviewed versions in journals.ResultsPeer-reviewed articles had, on average, higher quality of reporting than preprints, although the difference was small, with absolute differences of 5.0% [95% CI 1.4, 8.6] and 4.7% [95% CI 2.4, 7.0] of reported items in the independent samples and paired sample comparison, respectively. There were larger differences favoring peer-reviewed articles in subjective ratings of how clearly titles and abstracts presented the main findings and how easy it was to locate relevant reporting information. Changes in reporting from preprints to peer-reviewed versions did not correlate with the impact factor of the publication venue or with the time lag from bioRxiv to journal publication.ConclusionsOur results suggest that, on average, publication in a peer-reviewed journal is associated with improvement in quality of reporting. They also show that quality of reporting in preprints in the life sciences is within a similar range as that of peer-reviewed articles, albeit slightly lower on average, supporting the idea that preprints should be considered valid scientific contributions. (shrink)

A política da morte tem atravessado o mundo contemporâneo de forma cada vez mais agressiva. Como enfrentamento, a produção de arte e conhecimento tem resistido das maneiras que lhe são viáveis. A geopoética (WHITE, 2016) – uma poética da terra – pode ser considerada, nesse e noutros contextos, uma ferramenta teórico-crítica para reavaliar a posição humana perante o planeta, ante si enquanto espécie e diante da alteridade. Assim, aproveitando o conceito referido, abordarei textos literários ao mesmo tempo em que discutirei (...) pontos relacionados à geopoética, um possível operador de leitura, sobretudo contrapondo-se à necropolítica, na tentativa de uma ressignificação. (shrink)

Introduction Currently, The nature and scope of Clinical Ethics Protocols in Madrid are not well understood.Objectives The main objective is to describe the features of ‘guideline/recommendation’ type CEPs that have been or are being developed by existing Clinical Ethics Committees in Madrid. Secondary objectives include characterisation of those CECs that have been the most prolific in reference to CEP creation and implementation and identification of any trends in future CEP development.Methods We collected CEPs produced and in process by CECs accredited (...) in the public hospitals in Madrid, Spain, from 1996 to 2008.Results CECs developed 30 CEPs, with 10 more in process. The most common topic is refusal of treatment . If CEPs addressing terminal illness, Do-Not-Resuscitate orders and advance directives are placed into a separate ‘ethical problems at the end of life’ category, this CEP subject emerges as the most common . There is a relationship between the age of the CEC and the development of CEPs . CECs now seem to be more likely to engage in CEP development.Conclusions The CECs in Madrid, Spain, have developed a significant number of CEPs and there is a trend towards continued development. The most frequent topics are ethical problems at the end of life and refusal of treatment by the patient. (shrink)

Este artículo, escrito por algunos de quienes nos formamos con ella, recorren el legado filosófico e institucional de María Cristina Di Gregori, una destacada filósofa y maestra que desplegó su labor primero como estudiante, y luego como docente e investigadora en la Universidad Nacional de la Plata durante más de 50 años. Se destacan sus esfuerzos por construir una concepción alternativa del conocimiento y el lugar que las ideas pragmatistas tuvieron en tal construcción. Desde su trabajo inicial sobre el pensamiento (...) de Alfred Schutz, pasando por su discusión con las posiciones escépticas pero también fundacionistas, se muestra cómo la filosofía del pragmatismo clásico, que fue recuperada en el ámbito iberoamericano en gran parte gracias a su influjo, fue determinante para elaborar la comprensión del conocimiento y la ciencia de Di Gregori como una actividad atravesada también por las marcas distintivas de lo humano: los valores, las emociones y la creatividad. En la primera parte, Federico E. López ofrece un recorrido general por el legado filosófico e institucional de Di Gregori, mientras que María Luján Christiansen y Aurelia Di Berardino ofrecen una semblanza de su trabajo durante los primeros años luego de su doctorado. En la segunda parte, Livio Mattarollo, Victoria Paz Sánchez y Leopoldo Rueda analizan el modo en que, a lo largo de su recorrido intelectual, Di Gregori fue incorporando las ideas pragmatistas, apenas presentes en su trabajo doctoral. (shrink)

_In this symposium, Roberto A. Carleo III, Gregory Doukas and Imogen M. Sullivan think alongside Carlos Alberto Sánchez about the contingency of human existence as it is understood in Mexican existentialism. They ask: Should the notion of a metaphysical substance be discarded altogether due to its misuse in the history of European philosophy? Or are there philosophical reasons to avoid ontological uncertainty by, for example, postulating the notion of a non-discrete substance? And if attempts to define human substantiality merely seek (...) to defy this accidentality, should scholars with deviant identities deliberately engage in a wandering beyond dominant frameworks to evade the material and hermeneutical hostility of these frameworks? How should they work alongside others to best take up their responsibility? In his reply, Sánchez considers what the project of accidentalization would imply for each of these carefully-crafted interventions._. (shrink)

In Artificial Intelligence, Artificial Neural Networks are very accurate models in tasks such as classification and regression in the study of natural phenomena, but they are considered “black boxes” because they do not allow direct explanation of what they address. This paper reviews the possibility of scientific explanation from these models and concludes that other efforts are required to understand their inner workings. This poses challenges to access scientific explanation through their use, since the nature of Artificial Neural Networks makes (...) it difficult at first instance the scientific understanding that can be extracted from them. (shrink)

Drawing on sixteenth-century Protestant discourse on marriage and sexuality, this essay examines the anxieties permeating Spenser’s two poetical celebrations of his courtship and wedding with Elizabeth Boyle. Though the Reformers’ departure from Rome included an embrace of clerical marriage and an advocacy for the virtues of companionate marriage, revulsion at the sinfulness of sex remained. Through the sonnets of the Amoretti and the stanzas of the Epithalamion, an idea of mutual love is disrupted by a Protestant-tinged sense of innate and (...) pervasive depravity. Special attention is given to sonnets #58 and #84, and to the Epithalamion passages on Maia and Alcema. (shrink)

We propose a mathematical model for a class of predator–prey systems more complex than the usual one, involving a commensalism effect consisting in an influence of the predator on the sustainability of the prey. This effect induces interesting new features, including bi-stability. The question of the possibility of reaching a certain attractor starting from initial conditions with a small population of predators, which presents an interest from the vewpoint of the onset of the predator in evolution, is addressed. We propose (...) two possibilities: the classical one involving adapted conditions in the far past and a new one using biodiversity, specifically the presence of another predator which operates as a starter, being displaced in the sequel. (shrink)

In the framework of population dynamics, we start from the logistic equation describing the evolution of one species with limited food supply. A split device allows us to consider the population as two sub-populations x and y evolving analogously. The dynamical system has a one-parameter family of equilibria which is structurally unstable. Then small perturbations of the system (describing functional or ethological differentiations between the sub-species) lead in general to a new system involving a fast and a slow dynamics with (...) a finite number of equilibria. In simple situations where the differentiation is clearly either an advantage or an inconvenience for one of the subspecies, the stable equilibrium amounts to extinction of the disadvantaged subspecies (elementary Darwinism). Oppositely more complex differentiations (involving both advantages and inconveniences) often lead to stable equilibria with well-defined non zero proportions of the sub-populations (preservation of the biodiversity). Other examples are concerned with symbiosis-like differentiations, leading to preservation, whereas the opposite case (mutual nuisances) has an unstable equilibrium and lead to extinction of one or the other subspecies according to the initial conditions. The case of a scission into three subspecies is more rich in consequences. In certain cases, predator-prey relations lead to auto-organization phenomena with stable diversity-preserving diversity. Cases of instability are also possible, leading to orbits tending towards a poly-cycle.This implies some kind of pseudo-extinction: this amounts to “pseudo-periodic-like” orbits with “pseudo-periods” larger and larger, tending to infinity; each pseudo-period contains parts where one of the sub-populations practically vanish. Other non-linear perturbations lead to stable orbits. (shrink)

El presente texto busca desarrollar una reflexión filosófica respecto de las posibles relaciones entre la noción de identidad y las formas de gobierno contemporáneas. A partir de un breve análisis sobre los principales desarrollos de la noción, se busca tensionar el campo de comprensión habitual y plantear un determinado modo en que esta puede pensarse como un engranaje epistemológico-ético respecto de los modos en que los individuos son llamados a nombrarse y reconocerse dentro de los límites impuestos por una cartografía (...) política. La tesis que sostiene este escrito dice relación con que la categoría de individuo moderno no es sostenible sin una adscripción a un orden de los nombres que tiende al autogobierno en base a la apelación de un ideal ético de correspondencia consigo mismo. (shrink)

The preparation of teachers is a key process in the development of effective teachers, however, initial training always seems insufficient and outdated to produce the expected teaching profile and respond to the dynamic character of today's society. This article reports part of the research "teachers in the process of initial training" (2020-2021), developed in the context of a Faculty of Education Sciences, Chile. Based on a qualitative methodology and a case study research strategy, we worked with 120 pedagogy students in (...) the process of training, who offered their representations regarding the theory-practice relationship in the context of the Chilean educational system. In a complementary way, 5 focus groups were administered with the intention of enriching ideas and perspectives. The criteria to choose them were to be studying a pedagogy program, with experience of practices in schools and that they accepted to participate voluntarily, after signing consent. The results show that the theory-practice relationship can be understood in various ways: dependence, disagreement and integration which influence the way teaching is understood and its exercise. In terms of projections, the need arises to think of a training that in a bidirectional way manages to theorize the practice and experience the theory. (shrink)

Although values have increasingly received attention in psychiatric literature over the last three decades, their role has been only partially acknowledged in psychiatric classification endeavors. The review p..

The intuitive distinction between natural and unnatural properties (e.g., green vs. grue) informs our theorizing not only in fundamental physics, but also in non-fundamental domains. This paper develops a reductive account of this broad notion of naturalness that covers non-fundamental properties: for a property to be natural, I propose, is for it to figure in a law of nature. After motivating the account, I defend it from a potential circularity charge. I argue that a suitably broad notion of lawhood can (...) be defined independently of naturalness, if we help ourselves to the notion of a fundamental physical property. I end by showing how the notions of naturalness and lawhood that my account delivers help illuminate a number of other important philosophical notions, like causation, reference/meaning, and rational induction. (shrink)

Let ‘semantic relevance’ be the thesis that the wide semantic properties of representational mental states (like beliefs and desires) are causally relevant to behavior. A popular way of arguing for semantic relevance runs as follows: start with a sufficient counterfactual condition for causal or explanatory relevance, and show that wide semantic properties meet it with respect to behavior (e.g., Loewer & Lepore (1987,1989), Rescorla (2014), Yablo (2003)).This paper discusses an in‐principle limitation of this strategy: even the most sophisticated counterfactual criteria (...) systematically misclassify irrelevant properties as relevant when they stand in certain kinds of modal co‐variation or ‘entanglement’ relations to genuinely relevant properties. This entanglement problem, I argue, is more general and more serious than proponents of the counterfactual strategy have recognized: it threatens recent interventionist arguments for semantic relevance, and is not easily solved by appeal to proportionality or naturalness. I end by suggesting that proponents of semantic relevance may need to shift their attention from patterns of counterfactuals to the lawful psychological generalizations that explain them. (shrink)

O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar a autoeficácia e a qualidade de vida de jovens adultos com doenças crônicas, examinando possíveis diferenças entre homens e mulheres. Participaram 20 pacientes com diversos tipos de doenças crônicas, com idade média de 31,5 anos (DP 3,6) e que estavam inte..

O Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) tem início precoce e é caracterizado predominantemente por prejuízos persistentes na comunicação social recíproca/interação social e por padrões restritos e repetitivos de comportamento, interesses ou atividades. Pesquisas apontam que indivíduos com TEA apresentam altas taxas de problemas emocionais e de comportamento. O objetivo do presente estudo é avaliar os aspectos emocionais e comportamentais através do Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) em crianças que preencheram critérios para o diagnóstico de TEA. Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, quantitativo (...) e retrospectivo. No CBCL/1½-5, contatou-se que a escala Problemas do Espectro Autista apresentou escore clínico. Quanto ao CBCL/6-18, as escalas Retraimento, Problemas de Pensamento, Problemas de Atenção e Problemas de Estresse (DSM) apresentaram sintomatologia clínica. Os achados desse estudo estão de acordo com outras pesquisas da área. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que o CBCL é útil para a identificação de sinais de alerta de TEA. (shrink)

This paper explores various notions of aesthetic affordance recently developed through embodied, situated and enactive approaches to aesthetic experience by Maria Brincker and Shaun Gallagher, and the similarities and differences between them and the idea of affective affordance put forward by Joel Krueger and Giovanna Colombetti. This discussion is a way to try to offer some answers to the question of what aesthetic affordances particularly afford compared to affective affordances. I will focus on the affordances that we perceive during various (...) aesthetic experiences in which we find ourselves more moved by the object, event or person(s) causing the experience than we had anticipated. I will argue that these experiences emerge as opportunities to carry out an active exploration of aspects of the narrative self that we feel is related to features of the experience; and that one particular brain network likely to be involved in these experiences – i.e. the default network – might help us to understand how these experiences meaningfully change our relationship with ourselves and with the social context of which we are a part. (shrink)

Integrated Information Theory (IIT) stands out as one of the most promising theories for dealing with the hard problem of consciousness. Founded on five axioms derived from phenomenology, IIT seeks for the physical substrate of consciousness that complies with such axioms according to the criterion of maximally integrated information (Φ). Eventually, IIT identifies phenomenal consciousness with maximal Φ or, what is the same thing, with the strongest cause-effect power in the system. Among the scholars critical of this theory, some point (...) to the so-called Intrinsicality Problem (IP), namely that consciousness cannot be an intrinsic property of the system because maximal Φ crucially depends on the possible existence of bigger values of Φ if the initial system is appropriately linked to or embedded in larger systems. Although proposals in the recent literature aim to solve the IP by going beyond reductionism and physicalism, none of them tackle the real issue, i.e., the insufficiency of IIT’s causal-metaphysical structure. This papers endeavors to provide a solution to the IP in IIT within a hylomorphist ontology that includes formal causation. Complementing IIT with formal causation provides the theory with a criterion of individuation that solves the IP and, by relaxing identification between maximal Φ and consciousness, it lends a more robust metaphysical structure. To wit, maximal Φ is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the existence of consciousness. (shrink)

“Conciencia”, la sección inicial de la Fenomenología de Hegel, se ocupa de la comprensión del mundo físico que nos rodea. La sección siguiente, “Autoconciencia”, comienza a considerar nuestra comprensión de nosotros mismos y de los otros. Este orden de discusión no es ni arbitrario ni meramente conveniente. Por el contrario, una de las principales lecciones que hemos de aprender hacia el final del desarrollo de la “conciencia” es que nuestra mejor concepción del mundo que es el objeto de nuestras actividades (...) cognitivas es inteligible solo como una parte de un relato que además considera la naturaleza del sujeto que se dedica a tales actividades. La razón para esta transición expositiva es un aspecto importante en el idealismo de Hegel. En este capítulo ofrezco una reconstrucción racional de un argumento que veo como el soporte de esta transición y del tipo de idealismo que esta implica. (shrink)

Apresentação do n.1 da Revista Filosfia e Educação, dedicado à temática Educação e epistemologias. A organização deste número temático contou com a colaboração do Prof. Dr. Marcelo Donizete da Silva da |Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. A seleção de trabalhos inclui nove artigos diretamente relacionados com a temática proposta e que compõem a seção do dossiê e seis artigos da seção de fluxo contínuo da revista Filosofia e Educação.

Don Juan Manuel foi uma das personagens de maior relevo no século XIV em Castela, tanto pela sua obra literária quanto pela sua participação ativa ·na política da época. Era nobre, guerreiro e ao mesmo tempo tinha uma consciência clara de escritor. Preocupa-se por conciliar o que pensa e propõe, e o que vive intensamente. Detectar as linhas mestras e os conceitos presentes no pensamento do autor assim como a projeção dessas ideias na sua prática política, é o objetivo do (...) presente trabalho. (shrink)

Este artigo apresenta um exame da crítica proposta por Morton White em seu artigo “Valor e obrigação em Dewey e Lewis”, em particular, a aquela voltada para o conceito de normatividade e valoração de C.I. Lewis. A crítica afirma que Lewis, ao oferecer um caráter normativo dos juízos éticos, malogra ao articular consistentemente a sua concepção ética com a sua teoria do conhecimento. Isso leva White a concluir que o pragmatista não possui uma solução para o problema fundamental da ética. (...) Argumentarei que tal conclusão é equivocada. O núcleo da minha argumentação repousa na tese de que a crítica de White se origina de uma interpretação incorreta do pragmatismo conceitualista de Lewis, falhando em reconhecer que o apriorismo pragmático é a chave para o entendimento adequado de teoria do conhecimento e para uma explicação da conexão e articulação entre valoração e normatividade no interior da abordagem de Lewis. Nesta linha, mostrarei que, muito pelo contrário, a epistemologia de Lewis destaca os desenvolvimentos éticos e normativos, revelando uma teoria naturalística de valoração que é a base na qual a normatividade emerge pragmaticamente. Sustentarei, também, que essa perspectiva oferece uma concepção profícua de valores e normas que não têm sido suficientemente exploradas; algo que confronta o ceticismo ético, podendo levar em conta o status cognitivo de valores e normas, e que recupera o caráter racional da valoração não apenas para a ética, mas, também, para o conhecimento e a ciência. (shrink)

O período medieval é longo e de grande efervescência. Nele o saber foi se desenvolvendo e organizando aos poucos, acentuando-se sempre mais a importância da natureza. A partir do século XII, organizam-se escolas, no século XIII, as universidades. Nas "Siete Partidas" o rei Alfonso X idealiza e define o que seria o studi.um generale.